Islamic Civil War - Battle of Siffin

Analysis of Gender Roles and Feminism through an Episode...

Speaking of a media text that has made a significantly negative impression on me, it would spontaneously have let me think of the scenarios occurred in the famous comedy series - â€Å"The Big Bang Theory† - episode twenty in Season Six (see â€Å"The Big Bang Theory - The Tenure Turbulence†, 2013) . The episode tells the story about Sheldon, Leonard and Rajesh in order to gain competitive advantages for winning the tenure position, spare no effort to schmooze with committee members who make the decision. Leonard expects his girlfriend Penny to flirting with the male members in the committee to further his own cause, while Penny voluntarily decided to seduce the committee men for assisting her boyfriend. Sheldon asks Amy - his girlfriend - for to†¦show more content†¦In this circumstance, the exposure of sexy feminine charming become honorable in womens eyes, even itll lead to the male offensive reactions (like male gaze or sexual fantasies), but also are the results Penny originally wants to achieve. There are some confusions about these conflicting situations. Firstly, it’s different when men and women define and evaluate gender identities and behaviors. Secondly, men and women will exhibit different personal characteristics in terms of various social status, occupations, personal ideologies, gender superiorities, etc. Thirdly, the social ideologies manifested by outside world and the subjective ideologies formed by people themselves have complicated differences as well, in such a social environment, various gender ideologies mutually interacted and linked, therefore, itll be very hard to explain or even draw an accurate conclusion for these confusions by relatively theoretical researching and analysis. Analysis of Problems (words: 1486ï ¼â€° In cultural studies, feminism, poststructuralism and psychoanalysis are prevailing streams of thought and compulsory aspects required deeply investigation (Barker, 2008), then based on the researching about the information in these aspects, it’s going to explore and analyze the questions raised in the foregoing. Though feminism or feminist movement has experienced a long transformation inShow MoreRelatedOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pages. Organization Theory Challenges and Perspectives John McAuley, Joanne Duberley and Phil Johnson . This book is, to my knowledge, the most comprehensive and reliable guide to organisational theory currently available. What is needed is a text that will give a good idea of the breadth and complexity of this important subject, and this is precisely what McAuley, Duberley and Johnson have provided. They have done some sterling service in bringing together the very diverse strands of work

Australian Corporate Law for Trump Development - myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theAustralian Corporate Law for Trump Development. Answer: Trump Development limited Company has breached its constitution by borrowing money to expand its operations from overseas financial institutions against the companys constitution provisions that requires it to source financing from the Approved Australian Financial Institutions. It is important to note that the company has 4 directors whereby the majority 3 directors are keen to expand the companys portfolio to include Casino developments in Caribbean, Atlantic City and Las Vegas. The companys constitution allows the minority shareholders in a company to negotiate their terms of relationship with the others as well as to protect their interests. In this particular case, a more conservative director Hillary was not in agreement with the other three Big Donald, Little Marco and Bernie to deviate from Core Companys objective of developing residential properties in Sydney Melbourne and other capital cities. Article 141 of the Australian Corporations Act, states that a companys constitution is clear and supreme than the replaceable rules because it provides the framework through which the management of the affair of the company are anchored[1]. Replaceable rules can be enacted by majority of the shareholders in the interest of the company but should not violate the constitution[2]. In this particular case, one of the non-executive directors Slick Willy flouted the provisions of the companys constitution by seeking funding from overseas financial institutions to enhance expansion of Trump Development Limited into casino markets which terrible failed as a result of capital exhaustion. As a result the company ended up experiencing cost overruns in building the casinos therefore limit its capacity to continue its core operations in the real estate sector. Directors have the duty to act in the interest of the company by engaging in actions that benefit the shareholders. They also have a duty to avoid a conflict of interest by engaging in transactions for the sole purpose of improving the prospects of the company[3]. Looking at this particular case, the three directors were acting in the interest of the company by expanding the companys portfolio to include casinos because that would earn Trump development more revenues and profits. It is important to acknowledge that the companys constitution generally specifies the rules that govern the activities if the company, its directors and shareholders. The corporations Act does not prescribe the rules that must be incorporated in companies constitutions. On that regard, the company through its directors can choose to modify the provisions of the constitution through replaceable rules. This is done through a vote by the directors and each of their votes carries equal vote[4]. The majority are supposed to pass any constitutional amendment resolution. In this case, if the three directors amended the companys constitution regarding the financing of companies operation to include overseas financial institutions, then they will not have violated the constitution and neither have they violated the Australian corporations Ac. Once it has been proved that the directors were acting in the best interest of the company, the resultant liabilities cannot be blamed on the company because they took an investment risk whose outcome can either be positive or negative. Bibliography Australia. Australian Corporations Securities Legislation 2011: Corporations Act 2001, ASIC Act 2001, related regulations. Sydney: CCH Australia Limited, 2011. Cassidy, Julie. Concise Corporations Law. St, Leichhardt NSW: Federation Press, 2006. . Corporations Law: Text and Essential Cases. St, Leichhardt NSW : Federation Press , 2013. Roman Tomasic, Stephen Bottomley, Rob McQueen. Corporations Law in Australia. St, Leichhardt NSW: Federation Press, 2002.

Public Business Policy Prediction of Business Brands

Question: Describe about the Public Business Policy for Prediction of Business Brands. Answer: 1. Introduction The idea about brands and local clothes vary depending on the taste and preference of the people. Some feel brands give an identity and better predicts. On the contrary, some feel that local manufacturers will make better clothes and there is no need to support the big brands that are already gaining huge profits. The write-up will be mainly presented in the form of arguments where views will be presented supporting the purchase of the branded products as well as views that would be against the purchase of the branded products. View 1 Supporting branded clothes Sense of identity Wearing branded clothes is important because it assures quality to the individuals. as a company is representing the logo or the name, hence, it is less likely that they will provide degraded quality of products to the consumers (Mason and Gemma 2013). Once a person is purchasing from a particular brand and the experience is good, it is more likely that the person will again purchase from the similar company. Thus, many people feel buying from a brand will increase the durability of the product and prefer branded clothes than buying the local ones. Better quality A group of individuals will be able to identify with the brand by considering it as a common factor among them (OCass and Vida 2014). Many people feel that if someone is no wearing branded clothes, then people mind think that the person is disorganized. Especially, the teenagers are more brand conscious as they develop feeling that once they are wrapped under a secure blanket. View 2 Supporting non-branded clothes Development of the local businesspersons If an individual is purchasing clothes of a local brand then the purchases will help in the development of the society. Some of the local manufactures might be involved in making of the clothes and the local people will be benefitted if the individual buy the goods (Kelemen 2013). The customers might not be wearing any brand but he or she will be able to help the business of local manufacturers to grow and develop their business. Customers not benefitted Many people feel that they are not being paid or are benefitted for advertising the brand in the market (Freund, James and Erik 2013). They should not use the brand to promote the company for which the company is not giving anything to the customers. the designer brands have huge market and if some of the people are not wearing the brand, it would not affect the business of the organization as a whole. Branded clothes can be local At times, huge numbers of local manufacturers are involved in making the branded clothes, they do not get the recognition and the customers buy those clothes at a price that are much higher price (OCass and Vida 2014). In addition to this, the workers have to work in poor working conditions to support their family. The high prices of the products are mainly because of the middle men present in the supply and sale of the products in the market. Conclusion The people who are supporting the use of branded clothes feel that the quality of the products will be good if it is from any of the brands. On the other hand, many people feel that using a brand gives a sense of identity among the group. On the contrary, the views against the use of branded clothes argue that purchase of the local clothes help in supporting the business of the local manufacturers. At times, many local manufacturers are made to work under big brands but without any recognition for their work. in addition to this, many feel that companies are not paying the customers to advertise their products and hence it should be avoided. 2. The advantage of public schools is that it takes the responsibility to teach every child and at a fees that could be affordable by all strata of people (Elacqua 2012). The mid-day food provided by the public schools make the life of the people better who are not able to afford sufficient meals for themselves. On the contrary, the disadvantage of the public schools is that the government is running them; it lacks certain facilities and infrastructure that are needed to educate the children. The advantage of private schools is that it has the facilities, amenities and tools that will be helpful in proper development of the child. The visually aided classes are helpful for the children to visualize the lessons that they are learning in the books (Turner, Lindsey and Frank 2012). On the other hand, it is not possible fro every parent to support the education if their children with the high fees demanded by the school authorities. References Elacqua, Gregory. "The impact of school choice and public policy on segregation: Evidence from Chile."International Journal of Educational Development32, no. 3 (2012): 444-453. Freund, James, and Erik S. Jacobi. "Revenge of the brand monsters: How Goldman Sachs doppelgnger turned monstrous."Journal of Marketing Management29, no. 1-2 (2013): 175-194. Kelemen, Zita. "Lovemarks or passion brands may create barriers to private labels in the digital age."Regional and Business Studies4, no. 1-2 (2013). Mason, Roger B., and Gemma Wigley. "The'Chav'Subculture: Branded Clothing as an Extension of the Self."Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies5, no. 3 (2013): 173. OCass, Aron, and Vida Siahtiri. "Are young adult Chinese status and fashion clothing brand conscious?."Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management18, no. 3 (2014): 284-300. Turner, Lindsey, and Frank J. Chaloupka. "Slow progress in changing the school food environment: nationally representative results from public and private elementary schools."Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics112, no. 9 (2012): 1380-1389.

Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making Essay Example

Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making Essay Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making Perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of world around us. It involves deciding which information notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret it within the framework of existing knowledge. Another definition of perception is â€Å"A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment†. We can summarize the perception with this sentence â€Å"We don’t see the things as they are, we see things as we are†. Why is perception important in the study of Organizational Behaviour? Simply because people’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. Virtually all management activities rely on perception. In appraising performance, managers use their perceptions of an employee’s behaviour as a basis for evaluation. Factors that influence perception are categorized to three groups; 1)Factors in the perceiver: Attitudes, Motives, Interests, Experience, Expectations 2)Factors in the situation: Time, Work Setting, Social Setting 3)Factors in the target: Novelty, Motion, Sounds, Size, Background, Proximity, Similarity Shortcuts used in judging others; )Selective Perception: a characteristic that make someone stand out in our mind will increase the probability that it will be perceived 2)Halo Effect: drawing a general impression based on a single characteristic 3)Contrast Effects: our reaction is influenced by others we have recently encountered 4)Projection: the tendency to attribute our own characteristics to other people 5)Stereotyping: judging someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which they belong Attribution in Organizations We will write a custom essay sample on Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Attribution simply refers to how a person explains the cause of another’s or his or her own behaviour. Attribution thus is the most relevant application of perception concepts of organizational behaviour-the issue of person perception. The attributions or inferred causes we provide for behaviour have important implications in organizations. In explaining the causes of employee performance, good or bad, we are asked to explain the behaviour that was the basis for the performance. Attribution Theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behaviour, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused: Internally; believed to be under the personal control of the individual Externally; resulting from outside causes. Determinants of Attribution Distinctiveness; whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations. Consensus; if everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way. Consistency; does the person respond the same way over time. Individual Decision Making Individuals in organizations make decisions. That is, they make choices from among two or more alternatives. Decision-making is almost universally defined as choosing between alternatives. Decision-making is a critical activity in the lives of managers. The decisions a manager faces can range from very simple, routine matters for which the manager has an established decision rule(programmed decisions) to new and complex decisions that require creative solutions(non-programmed decisions). Decision-Making Process Managers have to make decisions whether they are simple or extremely complex. Making a good decision is a difficult exercise. It is the product of deliberation, evaluation and thought. To make good decisions, managers should invariably follow a sequential set of steps. 1)recognize the problem and need for a decision 2)identify the objective of the decision 3)gather and evaluate data and diagnose the situation 4)list and evaluate alternatives 5)select the best course of action 6)implement the decision 7)gather feedback 8)follow up

How I Won a Scholarship to a Writers Retreat

How I Won a Scholarship to a Writers Retreat Time to write- who doesnt want more of that? I certainly did. But as a full-time freelancer with no paid vacation days to subsidize professional development, paying to attend a writers retreat was not an option. After unsuccessfully applying for scholarships, I tweaked my approach- and won a full scholarship to the  Writers Winter Getaway. Here are four strategies that helped me find success. 1. Read the Guidelines Carefully   Before writing my application, I read both the scholarship guidelines and event details looking for keywords. What made this event unique? What were their core values? How did they market this event to writers? I found three concepts to emphasize in my application: Community, supportive workshop environments, and time to write. I made sure to touch on each of these in my application. For instance, my rural community doesnt offer many opportunities to connect with writers, so the community aspect of the event was important to me. This research was time-consuming, but it helped me organize my thoughts and outline my application. It also cut through self-doubt. I didnt ask myself What should I say? or How can I convince them to pick me? I let my research guide me in writing a strong essay. 2. Research the Honoree My wife, who reviews thousands of scholarship applications in her job, offered valuable insight. Many scholarships are given in honor of someone, but few applicants connect their story to the honoree. Those who do stand out to the scholarship committee- and often go on to win. Before completing my application, I looked up the honoree, poet Toni Brown. Not only could I connect personally to Toni, since we were both LGBTQ writers, but I found ways to touch upon her story in my application materials. While I never mentioned Toni 3. Use Details to Create a Sense of Urgency I almost didnt apply for this scholarship, because applications closed the day before I left for a two-week vacation. With my bags packed, I found time to review the application and pull something together quickly. With no time to stress- if I didnt finish this now, it wouldnt get done- I found urgency that allowed me to be transparent in expressing my need without feeling the shame or embarrassment that can come up when asking for financial assistance. My application explained what I wanted to work on at the retreat (a new novel), where I was in the work (10,000 words in), what specific goals I wanted to accomplish (which tied back to their guidelines), and why now was the ideal time for me (I was facing burnout). My time constraints helped me demonstrate urgency to the scholarship committee. When I received a phone call that let me know I was a finalist, they said as much, telling me It sounds like you could really use this opportunity. 4. Send Your Best Work   Even though I planned to work on a new project, I sent my strongest work- in my case, five pages from my polished novel. A committee member sought me out at the retreat to let me know how much she enjoyed my writing. While it was a true gift to receive a scholarship to a writers retreat, the process I developed to handle applications is what Im most proud of- and hope to put to good use again soon.

Philosophy(Descartes, Malebranche, Spinoza, Leibniz, Berkeley, Hume, Essay

Philosophy(Descartes, Malebranche, Spinoza, Leibniz, Berkeley, Hume, Locke) - Essay Example Spinoza believes that there is nothing fantastical about the natural way in which things are done. In regards to God and nature, God is simply an extension of nature. He did not create nature, nor does He have any say or anything to do with what happens, as He himself is a part of it. Gottfried Leibniz, however, believed that God was the reason that this universe is the way it is, as opposed to any other possible way. God is the grand architect of the universe, though the act was supposedly done randomly, and not premeditated. Leibniz also stated that only God would know the purpose for the existence of the things living in the universe, and the different concepts that go along with them. It is because of this that Leibniz feels that God’s purpose is to keep these things organized and to be sure that they fulfill their purpose, lest they be pointless and irrelevant to the circle and workings of nature. Part of Leibniz’s philosophy of God’s existence is that, since God decides what does or does not belong in the world, it is up to God on how much good and evil should also exist. God creates good and evil, but He chooses to keep as many perfect things as possible, since God would not want evil when He can present the world with good and wonderful things. The differences between the two separate philosophers and their theories of God is that while Spinoza feels that God is just a part of nature, Leibniz feels that God is the reason life and the universe are the way they are. To one philosopher, God plays a small, typical role that seems to be the same as that of humans and the rest of nature (meaning that God is not held in a high position). Yet, to the other philosopher, God’s role is larger and more relevant to the outcome of the universe, seeing as it is by God’s doing that the universe functions the way that

Human resources management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human resources management - Essay Example This field is one that will continue to last for a long period of time until some other discipline is introduced by the management gurus which is considered better and more up to date than the human resources management ideology which is ruling the roost as of now. Within the management concerns, the need is to understand how management and leadership play their dire roles within the making up of the human resources management function that individuals know of. This is the reason why management and leadership tenets are being appreciated by people because they bring in a sense of empathy with how things are carved out and how these will continue to be in the coming times. The management understanding is based on the premise that employees will be led by someone who knows how to take care of the people working under him and how they will relate with one another on an organizational level. How management turns out to be the savior for organizations today is a point that needs much atte ntion (Rees 2001). This is because organizations know that if the management concerns are paying heed to the likes and dislikes of its employees whilst at the same time concentrating on manifesting its own role, then perhaps it is doing something worthwhile. However, this needs patience on the part of the organization which is doing its best to bring about a change for the better of all and sundry. The ideology behind it is to bring a change which will instill a new direction and a sense of purpose which was felt missing from the related ranks. Similarly, leadership is of dire value because it asks of the employees to be commanded by a leader that has his own will, direction, and authority. It gives him the room to maneuver how he wants to see things through and basically to lead people through his meticulous ways. The leaders always find it hard in the beginning to bring drastic changes but with the passage of time and perseverance, they are able to bring the amendments that they h ad already planned for in the past, as far as organizational requirements and tasks were concerned. Leadership is also an interesting topic because it touches upon areas of significance, gives the employees something to think about and basically makes everyone within the organization something to derive learning from (Hopkins 1998). A good leader allows his team to grow and develop with the passage of time, and with this professional growth and development is just a part and parcel as there are many other dimensions that are readily paid heed within the thick of things. Hence leadership that knows how to instill a sense of pride within the employees’ realms is indeed the leadership that knows how to make do with things that are available at its disposal. When it comes to recruitment measures, human resources management’s role is well cut out. What this implies is the need to comprehend that human resources management considers recruitment as one of the most significant aspects of its institution (Boxall 2007). It suggests for the amendments that are required on its part. What is more important is the fact that the human resources management department knows beforehand that all recruitment and selection entities will be covered by the lengths and breadths of this unit. If this happens on a consistent basis, there will be room for improvement as and when required and minor changes will be the order of the day.

Pricing Objectives and Strategies of Pixar Animated Studios Essay

Pricing Objectives and Strategies of Pixar Animated Studios - Essay Example One of the most important considerations while setting the price objectives is the fact that how much prices setting objectives corresponds to the overall strategy of the firm. Further to this, the pricing objectives are selected with business and financial goals in the mind. Error: Reference source not found. The possible pricing objectives to be set can be: Considering Pixar in mind, since in entertainment industry prices vary according to the film theaters, therefore, there is a very little bargaining power left to the producers to bargain. A closer look at the situation would suggest that the pricing within the entertainment industry largely depends upon the quality of the content. If films are being liked by the audience than any pricing objective can be set to achieve. It can be either to maximize sales volume, profits or to keep the status quo. If the content is not liked by the audience than any pricing objective and subsequent pricing strategies may not work for the Pixar. As discussed above that the pricing strategy within the entertainment industry does not have preferential rights to set the prices and they are largely being standardized within the industry, therefore, any pricing flexibility may not be working directly for the Pixar. However, within Channel distribution, the negotiable pricing may seem to the right idea for Pixar to work. Since pricing, flexibility within channel distribution will provide them a necessary room to gain more room on the theater for prolonging and a special screening of the films at special prices for the different classes of the customers. Since Pixar is the producer of animated films which are supposed to be more popular with children, therefore, a targeted pricing flexibility against specially arranged screenings may allow it to generate more audience hence more revenue.

Kublai Khan The Conqueror History Essay

Kublai Khan The Conqueror History Essay Here is a story about Kublai khan. He had a little family but they were next in line for the thrown. His uncle Genghis khan and his brother Mongke influenced him because they were great emperors. So next after his brother was Kublai khan. So when he was emperor he conquered not just to get land but also to help them get their education. Here is a little tale about Kublai khan. Kublai khan was born in 1215.He was the fourth son of Tule also the son of Genghis khan. He had a little family. His brothers were Mongke, Ajir boge, and Ariq boge khan. In 1251 Kublai khan controls eastern Chinese territories by his brother Mongke being emperor. Kublai khan was also in charge of expeditions. Mongke being emperor. Kublai khan was also in charge of expedition into western Chinese territories but was killed by the Chinese defense in August 1259.In 1260 Kublai khan was elected mongkes successor. Kublai khans younger brother Ajig boge khan strongly disagreed and his younger brother Arig boge khan as well. So Arig boge khan proclaimed himself khan at karakorum, Mongolia. 1264 he defeated his brother Arig boge khan. After he defeated his brother he started to trade with the west of china. There were several directed exchanges of missions between the pope and the great khan. Kublai khan in trusted the polo brothers in 1266 to carry a request to the pope about scholars and t echnicians. Kublai khan was a Mongolian leader not only through conquest, but also by ruling successfully. He was so interested in Chinese culture that they over threw him. In 1287 Marco polo accomplished Kublai khan to defeat his uncle and his rivals the Nayan after a long battle Kublai khan and Marco polo defeated his uncle and his rival the Nayan. Then Kublai khan died on February 18, 1294. Kublai khan ruled over Mongolia. Mongolia is in between Russia and china in Eurasia. He was known in history as a great emperor and powerful one. So he was a Mongol dreamer, and ruler, during the 13th century, desired to unite different religious, nationalities, and cultures together under the Yuan Empire. While he was Mongolian by birth, he was a great sympathizer for the Chinese people. Even thought he didnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t always trust them, he was fascinated with there culture, traditions, and art. He conformed to Chinese ways so well that the conservative Mongolians were offended and repeatedly caused him problems. In 1287 Marco polo and Kublai khan went on an expedition to explore the world and also to defeat his uncle and his rival nayan. So then the nayan had 300,000 solders. But Kublai khan had 460,000. So he had them beaten by 160,000. So after a horrible but great battle Kublai khan won against his uncle and the Nayan. So after he defeated his brother Arigh boki. He was named the great khan. So since he was empire Kublai khan transformed from conqueror to ruler led to many developments in Chinese culture. He provided for his people free religion, created aid agencies, increased the use of postal stations, established paper currency, reorganized and improved roads, and, expanded water ways. In his rule the winter capital was moved to Chinese territory in the city of dadu, which is modern day Beijing. In summer hr moved the capitol to Shangdu, which is referred as Xanadu. The Yuan dynasty failed, because Kublai khan died of, many reasons. His decision to move the capitol to Chinese territory and to in stall his beautiful palace at Xanadu offended his Mongolian advisers. So he was torn apart between his country and the following traditional nomadic ways of his people. Eventually he was sanitized and his Mongolian influenced government battled between their ways and the demands of the Chinese. The divi sions in the Chinese people were not the only reasons only reasons for his death. He sought expansionism to appease his trusted Mongolian advisers and sought after java and Japan. He attempted but he failed which cost his government money. So the paper currency he created caused inflation and continual conflicts between disgruntled religious groups arose into the mixed society he fosted. In 1281 the death of his favorite wife dies also along with his son as well. So he went into a depression Consequently, with a decling government in his hands and an ache in his heart, so he became an obese drunk and died at the age 79. Regardlessly of him to demise, the yuan dynasty made alasting impact on china and established the legacy of the great khan. Kubali khan was a great emperor in the yuan dynasty. He was a powerful emperor. He had a little family. He had three brothers, mom and dad. When he conquered the Chinese it was for the entire better. He helped then get education and also to conquer land and show what a great emperor. So when he started his downfall first his wife died and also his son so when they died he started letting down his empire. So later on he died of a broken heart by letting his people down. He helped the world by spreading education. I also learned that by conquering land you also help them by giving them what they donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t have yet. So he also proved that you could die of a broken heart.

What is Instructional Technology? Essay -- Definition IT Essays

What is Instructional Technology? Describing Instructional Technology (IT) is a lot like herding cats – it can probably be done but it won’t be easy. It has been a difficult question for educational researchers and technologists to answer. Few other fields have such a difficulty in self-definition. Everyone can readily define such fields as psychology and biology, but the IT field is so new that no one has a definite answer. The term instructional technology is further confused because it is often used interchangeably with the terms educational technology and instructional design. The Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) (1994) defines IT as "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning." Silber (1970) describes IT as "the development . . . of instructional systems components (messages, people, materials, devices, techniques, settings) and the management of the development . . . in a systematic manner with the goal of solving educational problems." According to Tickton (1970), "instructional technology is a way of designing, carrying out, and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives, based on research in human learning and communication and employing a combination of human and non-human resources to bring about more effective instruction." The U.S. Commission on Instructional Technology (1970) defines IT as ". . . the media born of the communications revolution which can be used for instructional purposes along side the teacher, textbook, and blackboard. . . . a systematic way of designing, implementing and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in... ...ugustana.edu/library/Newsletter1/index.htm . Commission on Instructional Technology. (1970). To improve learning. A report to the President and the Congress of the United States. Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing Office. Jones, B.W. (1999). A Differentiating Definition of Instructional Technology and Educational Technology. Available online: http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Campus/7941/trmpprh.html Seels, B.B. and Richey, R.C. (1994). Instructional technology: The definition and domains of the field. Washington, D.C: AECT. Silber, K.H. (1970). What field are we in, anyhow? Audiovisual Instruction, (15(5), pp. 21-24. Tickton, S.G. (1970). To improve learning: An evaluation of instructional technology. New York: R.R. Bowker Company. Webster’s Dictionary (1989). Edited by Patterson, R.F. and Litt, D. Miami, FL, P.S.I. & Associates, Inc.

Human sexuality Essay

She was barely eight years old when together with seven of her age mates ,she was handed over to a traditional circumciser who took them through the painful process of FGM. it has been many years since ,and she has accomplished so much in life, but the incident remains fresh in her mind. The old woman who took them through the process was going blind, she says, and three of the eight who underwent the procedure died due to excessive bleeding. One of them was her very close friend. Luckily for her, the bleeding was not too much and she had a savior at hand. Her father, who was a policeman, took her to a hospital in Garissa using a police land rover. This was the traumatizing experience that nominated Member of Parliament, Sophia Abdi Noor went through when her mother blessed her to undergo the rite of passage that would cleanse her and make her acceptable for marriage according to tradition. Never before in history of the august house had a member used her own life experience to move debate as Ms.  Sophia did when supporting the bill to outlaw female genital mutilation. Female genital mutilation is the term used for operations or removal of all or just part of the external parts of female genitilia. This practice has for a long time come under increasingly intense international scrutiny from the news media, feminist and human rights organizations. The main reasons for continuation of FGM are firstly, as a rite of passage from girlhood to womanhood; a circumcised woman is considered mature, obedient and aware of her role in the family and society. Secondly, FGM is perpetuated as a means of reducing sexual desire of girls and women, thereby curbing sexual activity before and ensuring fidelity within marriage. Although opposition to female ‘circumcision’ has been articulated throughout the twentieth century, starting with missionaries and colonial administrators, the current resurgence of indignation was ignited in part by activists at conferences honoring the United Nations Decade for women(1975-1985). (Shell-Duncan. B,Hernland-Y;pg 23) The practice of circumcising women has very deep roots that touch all aspects of the cultures that continue to inflict it upon their girls. However,it still remains to be a practice that violates the human rights of affected women in a moral and ethical sense because it generates psychological torture, low self-esteem, tampers with a woman’s sexuality and is a health hazard. Psychological torture The pain inflicted by F. G. M does not stop with the initial procedure, but often continues as an ongoing torture throughout a woman’s life. Intense pain and hemorrhage experienced during the procedure can lead to shock. A 1985 Kenyan study found that nearly 97% of the 269 women interviewed experienced intense pain during and after F. G.  M and more than 13% went into shock. According to WHO, It is self-evident that any form of surgical interference in the highly sensitive genital organs constitutes a serious threat to the woman, and that the painful operation is a source of major physical as well as psychological trauma. The extent and nature of the immediate and long-term mental disturbances will depend on the girl’s inner defences, the prevailing psychological environment, and a host of other factors. The family no doubt does its best to mitigate the painful effects of the operation; nonetheless, they necessarily undergo overwhelming experiences. Even before the operation, the threat of ‘cutting’ and fear provoking situation may disturb the mental state of the child to the degree that it causes worry, anxiety, sleeplessness, nightmares or panic. As anticipating precautions against these anxieties the family commonly uses various forms of traditional magi co-religious practice such as fumigation, or the wearing of amulets. On a religious perspective, the scripture prescribes that special efforts be made to care for those who are most vulnerable. (Deut 10:17-19,Ps 82:3,4; Ps24:11,12;Luke 1:52-54) Jesus taught that children should be loved and protected. Therefore,the genital mutilation of young girls violates the biblical mandate to safeguard children and protect them from harm and abuse Tampers with a woman’s sexuality. Sexual intercourse can only take place after opening the infibulation, through surgery or penetrative sexual intercourse. Consequently, intercourse is frequently painful during the first weeks after initiation. Although it is difficult to verify reports or women’s sexual experiences, physical complications from FGM often impede sexual enjoyment. FGM destroys much or all of the vulva nerve endings, delaying arousal or impairing orgasm. Lacerations loss of skin elasticity, or development of neuron (a tumor or mass growing from a nerve) can lead to painful intercourse. In a 1993 Kenyan study, 5% of women interviewed experienced painful intercourse while 9. 3% of them reported having difficult or impossible penetration, and that many of the married ones only accepted it only as a duty. Scripture celebrates the divinely ordained gift of sexual intimacy within marriage (Eccl9. 9;Prov 5:18,19). The practice of female genital mutilation should be renounced because it threatens the creator’s design for the experience of joyful sexuality by married couples. For married couples, the gift of sexual union may be further blessed by the birth of children (Prov 31:28). The fact that successful childbirth is threatened by FGM is additional grounds for opposition to this practice. Health hazard. In October 1994, as a response to the call to Global Action,UNICEF issued an executive directive declaring that FGM is a health hazard to children and violation of their human rights. FGM in any form should not be practiced by health professionals in any setting including hospitals or other health establishments. Unnecessary oddly mutilation cannot be condoned by health providers. FGM is harmful to the health of women and girls and violates their basic human rights and medicalization of the procedure does not eliminate this harm. On the contrary, it reinforces the continuation of the practice by seeming to legitimize it. Health practitioners should provide all necessary care and counseling for complications that may arise as a result. Group circumcision, where the same unsterilized instrument is used on several girls at a time, repeat cutting and stitching increases risk of HIV infection. The Bible presents the goodness of God’s creation, including the creation of human beings (Gen 1:31; Ps 139:13, 14). God is the source and sustainer of human life (Job 33:4; john 1:3, 4). He calls for preservation of human life and holds humanity accountable for its destruction(Gen 9:5,6;Ex20:13,Jer 7:3-34). The human body is the â€Å"the temple of the Holy Spirit,† and followers of God are urged to care for and preserve their bodies, including the Creator’s gift of sexuality, as a spiritual responsibility (1cor6:15-19). Because FGM is harmful to health, threatening to life, and injurious to sexual function, it is incompatible with the will of God. Having discussed the side effects that FGM pauses to victims, various communities have come up with measures to fight this procedure, an alternative rite of passage in the abandonment of FGM is used. It involves a four-step procedure Preparation Seminars for both parents and initiates are encouraged. The topics will include side effects of female circumcision, and get prepared to attend a residential seminar to elaborate on what the alternative procedure entails. Actual Circumcision In the alternative Rite of passage, actual circumcision should be stopped since we have learnt that it is not necessary to make a woman an adult nor mature. The side effects of F. C both short and long terms are to be avoided if actual circumcision is not performed. Parents can select a teacher and trainer, for their daughter who will accompany her to the residential centre for an alternative rite of passage seminar. Seclusion. For this the girls will attend a residential seminar for one week away from home. The initiate will be accompanied with their teacher and trainer. Women both circumcised and un circumcised from the community will facilitate during the seminar. Additional topics-AIDS, STI’s, simple hygiene and great women in the Bible, in community and in Kenya. Rites and rituals will be optional. Girls of circumcision age are between six and twelve years old. For the purpose of effective learning, the girls will be divided into two groups; girls between six and nine, ten and twelve. Graduation Graduation is expected to be brief and colourful. Songs, drama, plays and poems will be encouraged. Parents, community leaders, politicians and government officials will be invited to attend to witness the graduation of whole girls. Certificates of graduation will be awarded and prayers, blessings conducted. Exchange of gifts for newly graduated girls will be carried out and finally the graduates will be handed over to the community,chief,church elders and clan elders. Since it’s an annual event, committees are to b e established to plan for the following year.

TELECOMMUTING

INTRODUCTION Telecommuting or Teleworking has been the subject of numerous debates, articles, and academic papers - and in my opinion, the difference is minimal. The term "telework" tends to be used more in Europe and some other countries, while "telecommuting" is used more in the U.S. Some people prefer the word "telework" because it's a more accurate description of the concept - the "tele" prefix means "distance", so "telework" means "work at a distance." The telework advocates also believe that "telecommuting" has too strong a connotation about the commuting aspect, and that "telework" is a broader and more inclusive terms. Whatever you choose to call it, the underlying concept is the same: decentralizing the office, and using different ways of bringing the work to the workers. It doesn't make much difference what you call it . PRESENTATION OF THE TOPIC This research paper will focus on teleworking or telecommuting and will cover all the facts the readers need to know about this topic for full understanding. The term teleworking will be presented and will be use in this paper for simplicity, to tackle about teleworking or telecommuting. IMPORTANCE IN THE SOCIETY Reaping the benefits for the economy The benefits from the widespread adoption of telecommuting are threefold: the elimination of the tremendous waste involved in congestion, the effects of commuting, and pollution the improvements in productivity which promote competitiveness and growth the development of a high-skill workforce which is ahead of the field in working and trading over electronic networks. Reaping the benefits for employers The main benefits for employers are: substantial reductions in business mileage and the costs of congestion higher productivity from teleworking workers lower absenteeism and a happier, more loyal, more flexible and less stressed workforce. All the evidence indicates that it... TELECOMMUTING Free Essays on TELEWORKING / TELECOMMUTING INTRODUCTION Telecommuting or Teleworking has been the subject of numerous debates, articles, and academic papers - and in my opinion, the difference is minimal. The term "telework" tends to be used more in Europe and some other countries, while "telecommuting" is used more in the U.S. Some people prefer the word "telework" because it's a more accurate description of the concept - the "tele" prefix means "distance", so "telework" means "work at a distance." The telework advocates also believe that "telecommuting" has too strong a connotation about the commuting aspect, and that "telework" is a broader and more inclusive terms. Whatever you choose to call it, the underlying concept is the same: decentralizing the office, and using different ways of bringing the work to the workers. It doesn't make much difference what you call it . PRESENTATION OF THE TOPIC This research paper will focus on teleworking or telecommuting and will cover all the facts the readers need to know about this topic for full understanding. The term teleworking will be presented and will be use in this paper for simplicity, to tackle about teleworking or telecommuting. IMPORTANCE IN THE SOCIETY Reaping the benefits for the economy The benefits from the widespread adoption of telecommuting are threefold: the elimination of the tremendous waste involved in congestion, the effects of commuting, and pollution the improvements in productivity which promote competitiveness and growth the development of a high-skill workforce which is ahead of the field in working and trading over electronic networks. Reaping the benefits for employers The main benefits for employers are: substantial reductions in business mileage and the costs of congestion higher productivity from teleworking workers lower absenteeism and a happier, more loyal, more flexible and less stressed workforce. All the evidence indicates that it...

TOTS Essay Essay Example

TOTS Essay Essay Example TOTS Essay Essay TOTS Essay Essay Life in Fear and Loathing Boo! In Henry James novella The Turn of the Screw, the Greene theory is the most plausible explanation of the events. The Governess is the murderer of Peter Quint and Miss Jessel, and Quint and Jessel return to haunt Bly. The events result in Mrs. Grose gaining a sense of trepidation around the Governess while her plans to take over Bly are unsuccessful. The Governess has no limits when it comes to getting what she desires. After killing Quint and Jessel, the Governess comes to Bly to carry out the rest of her machination. She begins by applying to work at the palatial Bly home after very chary waiting for the Job opportunity to open up. The children at Bly behave consummately and feign having a sweet personality to direct the attention of visitors away from the evil horrors at the home. 9 The Uncle, who interviews the Governess, chooses not to entail himself because he is overworked and cannot find the time to care for the young children. l The storyteller describes how she waits to answer in person an advertisement dames 295). The Governess knows that to ain blatant control of Bly she needs to become an employee and eventually kill everyone at the home. The Governess hears a small child crying outside of her room on her first night at Bly. 2 The Governess previously killed Quint and Jessel and it remains a conundrum of the true cause. Mrs. Grose explains how They were both here- last year Mr. Quint is dead dames 321). Mrs. Grose speaks of the Uncle in past tense because of a mere a slip of the toungue. 4 The Governess eventually kills Miles in his own home, completing a step of her plan . .. held him his little heart had stopped dames 403). Miles dies because the Governess is psychotic and cannot control her baneful desire for death, resulting in Miles getting strangled. 22 The Governess will kill or get rid of any disruptions in her way and complete any task on her Journey for complete control of Bly. Many supernatural events occur after the Governess begins her occupation at the Bly home. Peter Quint an d Miss Jessel begin to haunt Bly with the help of Miles and Flora, sanguinely hoping to scare away the Governess forever. Flora and Miles never speak about Quint and Jessel because they pretend to be ignorant regarding the topic of the ghosts at Bly. 7+8 The Governess first sighting of Quint takes place on the tower roof. She describes how He did stand there! but high up, beyond the lawn and at the very top of the tower dames 310). Quint stays speechless, hoping to daunt the Governess and maker her leave Bly. 12 Shortly after the roof sighting, Quint appears outside of the window, being auspicious that the Governess will become scared. The Governess recalls, His face was close to he glass dames 316). The Governess remains completely scared after the encounter at the window before church and goes to Mrs. Grose for help because she is now aware that Quint appears to intimidate her. 13 Miles goes on the lawn at night to talk to Quint because the Governess sleeps during the later hours of the night, so no one will notice him. 10 Jessel scares the Governess the most when she appears across the pond for the second time. Mrs. Grose claims not to see Miss Jessel because she knows it will be a Jocular prank towards the Governess. She asks Flora goes mad after this event because her peers deny the ghost, and to add to the madness, Flora fakes becoming ill. 18 Flora gets to the other side of the lake by taking a boat with the assistance of Miss Jessel. 17 The first time Jessel appears, when a childs presence remains obvious, aims to scare the Governess while she sits down and sews when Flora plays with a toy. 16 Quint and Jessel succeed when it comes to scaring the Governess; yet still remain unsuccessful because they allow the Governess to castigate the children. The Governess attempts to learn more about Miles and Quint, but Quint stops the conversation by opening the window so wind easily blows out the candle flame. 15 Miles and Flora play a major role in Quint and Jessels plan to haunt and scare the Governess away from Bly. Mrs. Grose notices how the Governess behaves with the ghost encounters, and it changes her recapitulating view on the young woman. Mrs. Grose becomes very fearful of the Governess after realizing what she is capable of doing. She acts happy to see the Governess upon her rrival because she grows sick of Bly and the imputing responsibility of taking charge. Mrs. Grose disobeys the Governess without second thought. The Governess remembers how he had breakfasted with Mrs. Grose and his sister dames 391). The Governess clearly orders that Miles and Flora shall not be with each other and Mrs. Grose breaks the rule. At the pond, Mrs. Grose develops a fear of agreeing with the Governess and denies seeing ghosts along with Flor a. Mrs. Grose exclaims, She isnt there, little lady dames 382). Flora and Mrs. Grose know the ghosts exist but eny it towards the Governess in order to aid in Quint and Jessels plan. l Miles is not actually expelled from school, but Mrs. Grose tells the Governess he is to scare her into thinking that he is a cynical child. 5 He never speaks about the expulsion because he wants to avoid talking to the Governess about the events. 6 Anxious to leave Bly because of the Governess, Mrs. Grose accepts the Job of taking Flora to London for better care. Mrs. Grose states in agony, Take me away, take me away- Oh, take me away dames 383). Mrs. Grose discovers the Governess baleful intentions nd feels the need to leave Bly immediately. She claims Flora behaves oddly so that she gains a reason to leave with Flora and go to London. 20 Even the Governess becomes fearful of her own self after witnessing the damage on the old and tired Mrs. Grose. Mrs. Grose leaving Bly partially ruins the Governess plans. The Governess plan to take over Bly and kill the children only partially succeeds and becomes slightly abortive. She is surprised at how fearful she becomes of the ghosts and fails to realize what they are capable of when it comes to mental destruction. The Governess underestimates the childrens ability to scare the woman, resulting in the Governess banishing Flora from Bly. The Governess feasibly declares, He must take them away dames 353). She cannot handle Floras games anymore and decides to take her out of the situation by sending her away to London. Mrs. Grose becomes very assiduous in getting the Governess to contact the Uncle because the woman goes crazy and needs someone to oust the Governess form her Job. 14 The Governess becomes over-fearful of the ghosts and attempts to gather evidence against them. The Governess recalls being so determined to have all proof Games 402). Since nobody at Bly arrogates to believe the Governess, she starts to doubt herself and needs proof that the ghosts are real. The Governess remains successful in the sense stopped dames 403). Miles truly sees Quint in the dining room and he acts as if Quint is evil, but the Governess catches on and receives motive to kill the boy. 21 Miles acts as one of her main targets and succeeds in murdering him. When Flora leaves Bly, the Governess plan to take over the home with no witnesses results in ruin.

How should the second amendment be interpreted Research Paper

How should the second amendment be interpreted - Research Paper Example For example, recent calls to control and even ban gun use as a response to increasing violence and murder in schools that involve guns such as the the recent shooting in Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown inadvertently run counter to the basic Bill of Right of the Second Amendment. This is not the first however that this Amendment had been challenged and in fact, there were several court decisions made in the past that undermined this provision due to its unclear coverage and extent. For example, we can cite the U.S. v. Cruikshank (1876) case whereby it was often cited out of context with the claim otherwise that Second Amendment is "is not a right granted by the Constitution" (Guncite.com, 2010). This out of context interpretation also resulted in other flawed state regulation such as a provision in the Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975 law in the District of Columbia that requires all firearms including rifles and shotguns to be kept "unloaded and disassembled or bound by a trigger lock. The Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975 also contained a provision that prohibits the residents of the District of Columbia from owning handguns except those that were registered prior to 1975. As expected, the law was challenged and was elevated in the Supreme Court. Until finally on June 26, 2008 the Supreme Court made a decision to affirm the Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit in Heller v. District of Columbia. The Court of Appeals had initially made a decision to remove two provisions in the Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975 as unconstitutional. The provisions that were removed as unconstitutional were the provision that prohibits the residence of District of Columbia from the ownership of handguns except prior 1975 and the provision that requires all firearms to be "unloaded and disassembled or bound by a trigger lock" at all times. The decision elaborated that the Second Amendment â€Å"protects an individual right to bear arms† further stating its decision was "premised on the private use of arms for activities such as hunting and self-defense, the latter being understood as resistance to either private lawlessness or the depredations of a tyrannical government† (Library of Congress). Further, this right help preserve a citizen militia â€Å"the activities [the Amendment] protects are not limited to militia service, nor is an individual's enjoyment of the right contingent upon his or her continued or intermittent enrollment in the militia." (Guncite.com). With regard to handgun ownership, the Supreme Court thus decided that the District of Columbia cannot prohibit its citizen from owning such as guaranteed by the right enunciated in the Second Amendment albeit subjected to restrictions. The specific provision of Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975 that specified that all firearms including rifles and shotguns be "unloaded and disassembled or bound by a trigger lock" was also struck down as unconstitut ional. Although the District asserted that there are exceptions to this provision, it still meant to a total prohibition on functional firearms that would be used for self defense. The court further exegete; Section 7-2507.02, like the bar on carrying a pistol within the home, amounts to a complete prohibition on the lawful use of handguns for self-defense. As such, we hold it unconstitutional. Further, in the original U.S. v. Cruikshank in 1876 case which is often misinterpreted

Smart Car Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Smart Car Case Study - Essay Example The most attractive feature of this car is that it effectively combines driver comfort, safety, and customer choice. The supply chain feature of the Smart Car also becomes the key factor in its market acceptance for it deviates from the conventional practices of manufacture and distribution. This paper will explore the innovative and strategic features of Smart Cars’ supply chain. I Smart Concept and Logistics at MCC The conventional volume car manufacture raised severe supply chain issues which adversely affected the brand reputation of car industries. To illustrate, in olden days, car manufacturers did not given much emphasis on customer preferences but developed car models according to their concepts. Evidently the car models did not match with customers’ actual interests. According to traditional market ideologies, supplier was the king of market who used to govern market trends. Even in modern time, car manufacturers and suppliers exceedingly emphasize on their eng ineering elegance rather than customer requirements. At this juncture, the MCC Management initiates a ‘customer oriented production concept’ that would enable customers to suggest how they want their products to be configured. The MCC management gives customers the opportunity to specify their car preference. For instance, they can combine two colors of the frame with various colors of the body panels. This way, the company can create an impression of a high level choice even though the product variation choices are kept to minimum. Since the company designs its products according to customers’ choice, to a large extent it can avoid risk elements associated with market demand. Similarly, in traditional car industry, manufacturers did not have a clear picture regarding the time required for the completion of a car manufacturing process (lead-time). In other words, they took comparatively long time to fix lead-time for cars. It was one of the major difficulties in car industries’ supply chain. Suppliers and dealers faced many challenges in the market because of this inaccuracy in production management, and it led to gradual decline in market demand. This paucity of lead-time awareness affected supply process; and it considerably decreased the profitability of both the manufacturers and suppliers. The MCC management recently developed certain strategies that can assist the organization to count lead-time for cars in two weeks. This provision would increase the effectiveness of Smart Cars’ supply chain once it enables the suppliers and other supply chain personnel to involve in production process. According to the Smart Car concept, the MCC management has maintained provisions for the suppliers to co-invest in the production location as well as to take a greater share in final assembling process. This provision would ensure the active supplier participation in the production process also. As a result, MCC can minimize different co nflicts in the supply chain and thereby carry out business activities smoothly. Traditional car manufactures did not maintain such practices and it reduced the inter-relation between manufacturers and suppliers. In addition, it is observed that the value added during final assembly in MCC is just ten percent of the production cost price. This practice would indirectly benefit the suppliers and customers since the low level value addition during the final assembly assists the company

Should all states raise the high school dropout age to 18 Essay

Should all states raise the high school dropout age to 18 - Essay Example The skills become better with increased age. Hence, 18-year-old students have more life experiences that make them better citizens. They are also able to comprehend issues and act in accordance with regulations. An 18-year-old student has an enhanced maturity and cognitive capacity. Therefore, making the legal age for school dropout ensures that the society has fully equipped members to promote sustainability. Persons aged 18 years are equipped physically and mentally to enhance productivity and help in nation building. Even though, critics argue that increasing age limit amount to a violation of student rights and that it does not consider the talents. The school provides the platforms for talent development and nurturing. Schools also improve the interpersonal skills of individuals through diversity. Persons also learn to respect and appreciate other people’s cultures. However, such attributes only become better with increased age. An 18-year-old student shows good reasoning compared to the one who drops out at an early age. Therefore, all States should establish mechanisms to keep students in high schools until they reach 18 years of

Negative speech for legalization of divorce Essay Example for Free

Negative speech for legalization of divorce Essay A divorce formally dissolves a legal marriage. While married couples do not possess a constitutional or legal right to divorce, states permit divorces because to do so best serves public policy. To ensure that a particular divorce serves public policy interests, some states require a cooling-off period, which prescribes a time period after legal separation that spouses must bear before they can initiate divorce proceedings. Courts in the United States currently recognize two types of divorces: absolute divorce, known as divorce a vinculo matrimonii and limited divorce, known as divorce a menso et thoro. To obtain an absolute divorce, courts require some type of evidentiary showing of misconduct or wrongdoing on one spouses part. An absolute divorce is a judicial termination of a legal marriage. An absolute divorce results in the changing back of both parties statuses to single. Limited divorces are typically referred to as separation decrees. Limited divorces result in termination of the right to cohabitate but the court refrains from officially dissolving the marriage and the parties statuses remain unchanged. Some states permit conversion divorce. Conversion divorce transforms a legal separation into a legal divorce after both parties have been separated for a statutorily-prescribed period of time. Many states have enacted no-fault divorce statutes. No fault divorce statutes do not require showing spousal misconduct and are a response to outdated divorce statutes that require proof of adultery or some other unsavory act in a court of law by the divorcing party. Nevertheless, even today, not all states have enacted no fault divorce statutes. Instead, the court must only find 1) that the relationship is no longer viable, 2) that irreconcilable differences have caused an irremediable breakdown of the marriage, 3) that discord or conflict of personalities have destroyed the legit ends of the marital relationship and prevents any reasonable possibility of reconciliation, or 4) that the marriage is irretrievably broken. Look to various state laws to determine the divorce law within a particular jurisdiction. The Uniform Marriage and Divorce Act may provide further guidance. PROPERTY DIVISION Following a divorce, the court must divide the property between the spouses. Before legislatures equalized property allocation between both spouses, many divorce statutes substantially favored property allocation to the wage-earning spouse. These statutes greatly disadvantaged women disproportionately because during the 18th, 19th, and early-20th centuries, the participation of women in the workplace was much less than it has become during the latter-half of the 20th century and early part of the 21st century. The statutes failed to account for the contributions of the spouse as homemaker and child-raiser. Modern courts recognize two different types of property during property division proceedings marital property and separate property. Marital property constitutes any property that the spouses acquire individually or jointly during the course of marriage. Separate property constitutes any property that one spouse purchased and possessed prior to the marriage and that did not substantially change in value during the course of the marriage because of the efforts of one or both spouses. If the separate property-owning spouse trades the property for other property or sells the property, the newly-acquired property or funds in consideration of the sale remain separate property. Modern division of property statutes strive for an equitable division of the marital assets. An equitable division does not necessarily involve an equal division but rather an allocation that comports with fairness and justice after a consideration of the totality of the circumstances. By dividing the assets equitably, a judge endeavors to effect the final separation of the parties and to enable both parties to start their post-marital lives with some degree of financial self-sufficiency. While various jurisdictions permit recognition of different factors, most courts at least recognize the following factors: contribution to the accumulation of marital property, the respective parties liabilities, whether one spouse received income-producing property while the other did not, the duration of the marriage, the age and health of the respective parties, the earning capacity and employability of the respective parties, the value of each partys separate property, the pension and retirement rights of each party, whether one party will receive custodial and child support provisions, the respective contributions of the spouses as a homemaker and as a parent, the tax consequences of the allocations, and whether one spouses marital misconduct caused the divorce. Most jurisdictions also give the family court judge broad jurisdiction by providing judges with the right to consider any other just and proper factor. When assigning property, judges cannot transfer the separate propert y of one spouse to another spouse without the legislature having previously passed an enabling statute. Whether such an enabling statute exists varies between jurisdictions. Alimony refers to payments from one spouse to the other. A court can order one spouse to pay three different types of alimony permanent alimony, temporary alimony, and rehabilitative alimony. Permanent alimony requires the payer to continue paying either for the rest of the payers life or until the spouse receiving payments remarries. Temporary alimony requires payments over a short interval of time so that the payment recipient can stand alone once again. The period of time covers the length of the property division litigation. Similar to temporary alimony, rehabilitative alimony requires the payer to give the recipient short-term alimony after the property division proceedings have concluded. Rehabilitative alimony endeavors to help a spouse with lesser employability or earning capacity become adjusted to a new post-marital life. Courts allocate alimony with the intention of permitting a spouse to maintain the standard of living to which the spouse has become accustomed. Factors affecting whether the court awards alimony include the marriages length, the length of separation before divorce, the parties ages, the parties respective incomes, the parties future financial prospects, the health of the parties, and the parties respective faults in causing the marriages demise. If a couple had children together while married, a court may require one spouse to pay child support to the spouse with custody, but one should note that alimony and child support differ.

International Law: Piracy, Law of the Sea, and Use of Force Essay examp

This paper will answer the four questions presented below: 1. What is the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court over piracy? 2. To what extent may European nations claim jurisdiction over acts of piracy committed off the Horn of Africa? 3. What international law enforcement co-operation mechanisms exist to assist in the investigation and prosecution of piracy committed in waters off the Horn of piracy? How these mechanisms assist in the investigation and prosecution of piracy? 4. What barriers to successful prosecution of Somalia piracy exist? What is the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court over piracy? Explain your answer. Piracy becomes one of significant matters across regional, because the menace of piracy attack, especially in the hot spot area as the Horn of Africa is still going up and causes a plenty of loss. As piracy acts as universal crime, so that universal jurisdiction must be adapted to combat against piracy. Although, international community attempts to cope with this issue by establishing mutual-operation, but the final step is to bring pirates into legal proceeding. Some other countries seem to have a limit within their own jurisdiction, so that piracy cases may not be prosecuted after they were captured. Some countries may reluctant to participate in this content as same as reluctant to co-operate with international community. Hence, the establishment of international court which can take responsible on this matter will be an extra option to solve a problem. International criminal court is one of another option that may reduce the conflicts in the case of piracy. The jurisdiction of th e International Criminal Court can be explained under the Rome of Statue which provides a p... ...nal of International Law Rome Statue of International Criminal Court, opened for signature 17 July 1998, A/CONF.183/9 (entered into force 1 July 2002) Totten, Christopher & Bernal, Matthew, ‘Somali Piracy: Jurisdictional Issues, Enforcement Problems and Potential Solutions’ (2010) 41(2) Georgetown Journal of International Law Thedwwall, Craig, ‘Choosing the Right Yardarm: Establishing an International Court for Piracy’ (2010) 41(2) Georgetown Journal of International Law Treves, Tullio, ‘Piracy, Law of the Sea, and Use of Force: Developments off the Coast of Somalia’ (2009) 20(2) The European Journal of International Law Very, Francois, ‘African maritime Security: A Time for Good Order at Sea’ (2010) 2(4) Australian Journal of Maritime and Ocean Affairs http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIII-10&chapter=18&lang=en

Youth Justice Policy in Britain (1945-1981) †from Punishment to Welfare

Introduction The discussion of the youth justice policy in Britain has re-gained importance in the aftermath of the August 2011 riots, which spread across London and other major cities in the country. Think tank analysts and policy experts argued, that the youths which allegedly took part in the riots, were disillusioned and de-motivated young people from broken homes (Politics UK, 2011). The deep societal problem behind youth engagement in the London riots raised the question about the efficacy of the youth justice system in Britain, and debates about its institutional reform permeated the political discourse. After the gruesome murder of James Bulger in 1993 by two ten-year old boys the public and policy-makers became convinced, that only a general policy reform of the youth justice system is not sufficient. Rather a reform of specific sectors such as the ones dealing with anti-social behaviour and gang crime was much more urgent (Guardian, 2011). The purpose of this short essay is to critically review the different phases in the development of the youth justice system from the 1940s to 1981. Based on the conclusions, in the final section recommendations for policy reform will be made. Research question The purpose of this essay is to critically approach the different stages in the evolution of the youth justice policy in Britain. Based on this observation, the paper will provide an assessment of how the system has evolved and what the main trends in its transformation are. For clarity the author has decided to separate the observations in the following stages – from punishment to welfare, young offenders enter the community, and the strengthening of the Intermediate Treatment. Each one of them will be critically analysed in the following sections. The youth justice system in Britain: a review Before we proceed with the examination of the main developments in the youth justice system in the set period, it is important to provide a brief overview of the main components and structures of this system. Similarly to other types of youth justice systems, the British one inclines towards prevention, rather then retribution (Bottoms & Dignan, 2004). Bottoms and Dignan (2004) refer to the British youth justice system as a correctionalist and committed to the prevention of committing offences. The idea of the correctionalist system implies stronger intervention on behalf of the state, as opposed to earlier views such as letting young offenders grow out of the crime. This characteristic trend, experts argue, reflects a much more complex and multi-level approach to dealing with youth crime, involving different elements such as parents and agency teams. The trend has been accompanied with an intensive institutional reform, such as the introduction of the semi-independent body of the Youth Justice Board with the 1998 Crime and Disorder Act (Community Care, 2010). In the years to follow, there has been a trend for the unification of all activities related with youth justice under the umbrella of a single department – the Ministry of Justice, in order to create accountability and higher levels of responsibility in one of the most important and problematic policy areas in Britain. The 1940s – from punishment to welfare It is now clear that society’s views on crime change over time and are susceptible to historical and social conditions. The youth justice system in Britain is an example of the transformation of the concepts of crime and offender in social and political terms. Therefore the way young criminals have been treated by the criminal justice system has been a subject of reform throughout the years. In the late 1930s and early 1940s, perhaps one of the most important developments in the youth justice system is that a line between children and adult offenders was finally drawn. For the first time in the early 30s and 40s, the courts were obliged to consider the welfare of the child (Thorpe et. al, 1980). This marked a significant transformation of the whole justice system, because it determined a different role of the courts, related not only with taking punitive action, but also correction and care for the young offenders. It is now clear that the transformation from punishment to welfare has been later underpinned in another important document – the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (Youth Justice Board, 2008). As the later stages of the British youth justice system demonstrate, the latter has always been responsive to the developments, taking place in the field of human rights at any particular time. The 1960s – young offenders and the community The trend towards welferism which started in the early 1930s continued in the next several decades, and had its peak in the 1960s, when a special legislation, concerned with the social integration and correction of the young offenders was passed (Youth Justice Board, 2008: Thorpe et. al, 1980). In 1969 the Labour government passed a legislation to introduce a revised youth justice system, based on welfare principles and reformation of criminals (Thorpe et. al, 1980). The 1969 Children and Young Persons Act emphasized the role of the community as the environment, which would play a major role in the social integration of those who committed offences. The act also established the so-called â€Å"halfway house† which was the middle way between being subject to a Supervision Order (which requires minimum contact between supervisor and young person) and being taken into care (Youth Justice Board, 2008; Children and Young Persons Act, 1969). This new establishment came to be defined as Intermediate Treatment (IT) and according to some observers was the foundation of the modern youth justice system. Another intended development of this period, which however, did not come to fruition, was the attempt to increase the age of criminal responsibility from 10 to 14 years. Prior to the 1969 Act, the criminal responsibility age was only 8 years (Thorpe, et.al, 1980). The developments which took place between the 1940s and the late 1960s are a result of the rise of the welfare state in Britain and the rest of Europe. A major historical and sociological trend, the rise of the welfare state, which affected almost all policy sectors, was provoked by the advent of capitalism and consumerism, which according to social historians, exacerbated the class divisions in British society (Greenaway et. al, 1992). The youth justice system was no exception of this trend, and the establishments of the 1969 Act were a signifier of the fusion between community and policy. Youth crime was no longer a detached criminal activity for which only courts had responsibility – in the late 1960s it became a priority for the whole of the British society. The 1970s and 1980s – the strengthening of the Intermediate Treatment This decade was marked by persistence in the community-based treatment of young offenders. The role of community remained strong, and some judicial changes, such as the inclusion of â€Å"specified activities† in the Intermediate Treatment occurred. These were used to persuade magistrates to use communal sentences, instead of custodial sentences (Youth Justice Board, 2008). In this sense, the young offenders were made to participate in the welfare of the community as part of their correction process. In the light of these developments, it is interesting to notice that the connection between the community and young offenders remained twofold – young offenders were still treated as part of society, despite their violations. At the same time they were expected to contribute to its development. In its turn, society was to participate in their rehabilitation and integration in the post-offence stage. This is an important characteristics of the British youth justice system, because it reveals two things – that there is no positive connection between decreased custody and the level of youth offences, and that the British society took a middle stance between two types of justice – restorative justice, focusing on repairing the harms, resulting from the offence, and retributive justice, which relates to facing the consequences of the punishm ent imposed. This middle stance was about to change in the 1990s, when the cruel murder of two-year old James Bulger by two ten-year old boys was to push back the youth justice system towards punitive actions. Conclusion and recommendations This essay has attempted to critically examine the main stages in the development of the British youth system between 1945 and 1981. Two major developments have been discussed – the transition towards welferism and the steps towards correction, rather than punishment and custodial action. The role of the society has remained significant, and despite the developments of the early 1990s, the re-integration of young offenders has remained on the agenda. After the murder of James Bulger in 1993, public attention was once more shifted towards the reform of the youth justice system, and more specifically against the prevention of offending and re-offending, rather than mending the consequences of it. Therefore it is important that government efforts targeted towards bringing all the institutions involved in the British youth system under a coordinated scheme of action. Different units such as social workers, community volunteers, the police and those involved in education are to work together through enhanced dialogue. This means that the sectoralism in the criminal justice system needs to be reduced, and replaced with harmonization of efforts of different actors on all levels. This would ensure a holistic, rather than sectionalized approach to solving issues, related with youth crime in Britain. Bibliography: Bottoms, A. & Dignan, J. (2004) â€Å"Youth Justice in Great Britain†, Crime and Justice, Vol. 31 Children and Young Persons Act (1969), 22 October, The National Archives, Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1969/54 Retrieved 03.03.2012 Community Care (2010) â€Å"Ministry of Justice to take control of Youth Justice Board†, 20th May, Thursday, Available at: http://www.communitycare.co.uk/Articles/20/05/2010/114543/ministry-of-justice-to-take-control-of-youth-justice-board.htm Retrieved 03.03.2012 Greenaway, J.R., Smith, S. & Street, J. (1992) Deciding Factors in British Politics, London: Routledge ch. 2 pp. 29-39, ch 3. Guardian (2011) â€Å"What next for youth policy†?, August, 25, Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/public-leaders-network/blog/2011/aug/25/tony-blair-youth-policy-intervention-reform Retrieved 03.03.2012 Politics UK (2011) â€Å"Comment: What is causing the riots in London?, Nick Cowen, Monday, 8th of August, Available at: http://www.politics.co.uk/comment-analysis/2011/08/08/comment-what-is-causing-the-riots-in-london Retrieved 03.03.2012 Thorpe, D.H, Smith, D., Green, C.J, & Paley, J.H (1980) Out of Care: The Community Support of Juvenile Offenders Allen and Unwin Youth Justice Board (2008) â€Å"A Brief History of the Youth Justice System†, Available at: http://labspace.open.ac.uk/file.php/5193/YJ_k523_1/sco.htm Retrieved 03.03.2012

Korean College Students Reading Strategies Essay

1. INTRODUCTION Korean universities take a variety of different approaches to ensure college students obtain a strong level of English proficiency during their education. This is why many university English classes use authentic literature written for native English speakers. There are a variety of used resources; journal articles, research reports, thesis, online catalogues, databases, and internet materials. The number of English professors and universities that prefer to use authentic material is increasing. Reading authentic English text can be a burden for EFL learners. Kern (1994) mentioned that understanding texts written in a foreign language is a significant challenge for most students. To understand texts,a majority of readers not only translate a foreign language into their mother tongue, but also use translation to grasp the whole meaning of the content, and content related to their prior knowledge. When learners encounter authentictext, they tend to take the text for granted, not questioning the text or thinking about it in other ways. Many college students have previously been taught to read in order to solve the question without understanding the deeper meaning of the textand what influences the writer. In English education in Korea, reading is regarded as decoding the meaning of a written text to get knowledge and information. Thus, it is natural that reading activities in English textbooks focus on just getting information and grasping the content of the textbooks. That is why instructions from the teacher, reading strategies, and the classroom English reading textbook play important roles in training the learner how to read critically and gaining a full comprehension of what they read. Many studies in second or foreign language reading have investigated how second or foreign language readers deal with texts when reading in the target language (Block, 1996; Sheorey&Mokhtari, 2001). Meanwhile, the cognitive processes involved in reading comprehension in a second or foreign language are equivalent to those in the first language (Cummins, 1994), though constructing meaning in the second language is more demanding. While second language (L2) readers may think cognitively in reading, they generally face more difficulties in L2 reading because of their lack of grammar knowledge, limited vocabulary, or different cultural backgrounds, all of which impede comprehension. Many researchers like Chesla (1998), Cunningham and Stavonich (1997), Eskey (2005), and Hudson (2007) are interested the cognitive ocessesinvolved in reading comprehension, and have conducted a lot of research on effective reading lessons, reading materials, and students’ reading attitude. Ko (2005)found that students need to employ certain kinds of strategies in order to improve their reading skills: (1) They need to improve reading through extensive reading; (2) they need to find interesting content for motivation; (3) they need to enhance content knowledge in various areas; (4) they are willing to improve their spoken skills; (5) they want to improve their general writing skills; and (6) they need to increase their vocabulary knowledge. In this research, I will analyze whether Ko’s (2005) strategies and activities that teachers think are effective can be applied to gain reading comprehension. Reading strategies are referred to as the mental operations that are involved when readers approach a text effectively and make sense of what they read as well as what they do when they are lost while reading (Barnett, 1998; Block, 1986). As a part of helping readers to better comprehend L2 texts, some techniques or skills associated with reading proficiency have been examined. Many researchers have been making experiments about reading strategies. Some of these reading strategies range from skimming, scanning, contextual guessing, activating schemata, and identifying text structure, all of which are considered to be effective in enhancing comprehension (Block, 1986; Kern, 1994). Moreover, the Survey of Reading Strategies,known as SORS, introduced by Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002) will be adapted for use in this research project. This SORS has three major strategies: global reading strategies, problem solving strategies, and support strategies. For the students’ reading strategies, Korean college students tend to use the support reading strategy when they read; the global reading strategy is least preferred.However, research findings do not find a substantial gap among the three major strategies of SORS. This indicates that Korean students are not afraid of using different reading strategies, and do not limit themselves from receiving other perspectives. Teachers, who teach reading strategies, prefer one of the three main SORS strategies more. They use the global reading strategy most; meanwhile, they areunlikely to use the support reading strategy in the classroom, or even to recommend it to students. In this study, the researcherfocuses on Korean college students’ attitudes and preferences for using reading strategies, and the native English teachers’ attitude towards teaching reading, and the teacher’s preferences of reading strategies for teaching reading. Moreover, the researcher also investigates student’s reading difficulties and their expectations. The main research questions are as follows: For Korean college students: 1. Which reading strategies do Korean college students like to useand think effective in helping them to improve their reading comprehension skill? 2. What are the difficulties and problems that inhibit their effective reading comprehension? For native English teachers: 3. Which reading strategies do native English teachers like to teach and think are effective in helping students to improve their reading comprehension skill? 4. What are the difficulties and problems that inhibit you from teaching reading strategies effectively? 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Reading is an all-important language skill that is now in more demand than in any time in our history. With the exposure of the Internet in a global arena, students need to master reading in order to understand the vast knowledge the world embraces them with. It has been said that the literate adult today is reading more in one week than their great-grandfather did in a whole year (Swalmand Kling, 1973). This fact places pressures on the student to perform reading at a higher level than the student before them.Reading is the best way to absorb content materials and to increase critical thinking skills. It is also a hidden process that often goes unnoticed in the language classroom. In addition, reading is also a complex activity, where the goal is ‘to construct text meaning based on visually encoded information’(Anderson andNunan, 2007). In the first language (L1) reading, readers use only one language, whereas in the second language (L2) reading, learners have at least two languages to deal with. On the contrary, readingin a first or second language contextinvolves the reader, the text, and interaction between the reader and the text (Rumelhart, 1977). Although reading in the L1 shares numerous important basic elements with reading in a second or foreign language, the process also differs greatly. Intriguing questions involve whether there are two parallel cognitive processes at work, or whether there are processing strategies that accommodate both first and second language. Although on the surface first language and second language are different, readers can apply visual linguistic and cognitive strategies that they readily use in their first language reading to assist in their L2 reading. Whether the readers are reading in their first or second language the reading strategy operates in the same way: the readers look at the page and the print, then use their knowledge of sound or symbol relationships, order, grammar, and meaning to predict and confirm the meaning. In short, when readers have well-developed first language reading strategies, they can learn a second language more easily and rapidly.Students should have effective reading skills in their first language to assist their reading comprehension in a second language. 2.1. L1 Reading L1 reading is reading in the reader’s mother tongue. Reading contexts in general require knowledge of content; formal and linguistic schema. Reading is also a meaning-making process which involves an interaction between the reader and the text. Recent theories in second language reading stress that the L2 learners’ first language skills are very important when they learn a second language (Hakuta, 1986; Krashen, 1982). One of the main reasons supporting this claim is that when students have well-developed first language skills, they can acquire second language skills more rapidly. Concepts which were readily and strongly developed in their first language acquisition become accessible skills to learn a second language. This process is what is known as common underlying proficiency as described by Cummins, 1994. Although on the surface the two languages are different, readers can apply visual linguistic and cognitive strategies that they also use in their first language reading, to read in an L2 (Ovando, 2005). This means in both languages readers look at the page and the print, and then they use their knowledge of sound or symbol relationships, order, grammar, and meaning to predict and confirm meaning. There are four elements that are important in reading comprehension in either in L1 or L2: (1) whether the readerreads a lot and is familiar with reading in another language; (2) the length, type, and language difficulty of the text; (3) whether the reader uses the global reading, problem solving, or support strategies; and (4) fluency. In L1 reading, researchers have emphasized two factors potentially influencing readers’ processing strategies: the type of material that will be read and the purpose or goal for which a text will be read. 2.2. L2 Reading Second language reading is one of the four skills in mastering a foreign language. Seond language reading is gathering the syntatic and semantic processes as well as vocabulary, which include speed of letter naming, phonological processes, orthographic processes, and working memory. In addition, background knowledge also takes part in L2 reading comprehension (Malley, 1990). Moreover, based on Bernhard and Kamil (1995), second language reading comprehension processes have two main crucial variables; they are L2 vocabulary and L2 grammatical skills. In addition, there are six elements that intereact and blend together in forging the construct of L2 comprehension. The six elements are the phonemic/graphemic features, syntatic feature cognition (grammatical ability), word recognition, vocabulary, prior knowledge, and metacognition. Reading in an L2 is different from reading in an L1, in that L2 reading is influenced by a variety of factors that are normally not considered in L1 reading (Bernhardt andKamil, 1995). Among these factors, the two most frequently used ones to explain L2 reading fluency are readers’ L1 reading ability and L2 language proficiency. According to Teillefer (1996), these two factors significantly affect L2 reading comprehension, but to a different extent depending on different reading styles. With regard to importance and actual contribution of the above-mentioned two factors to L2 reading, there are two conflicting hypotheses: The Linguistic Threshold Hypothesis and the Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis. The first hypothesis, also known as the Short-Circuit Hypothesis (Clarke, 1979), states that in order to read in an L2, a certain level of L2 linguistic ability is required. In another definition, the L1 reading ability can be transferred to L2 reading only when L2 proficiency is higher than the linguistic threshold. Therefore, a certain amount of linguistic ability is a prerequisite for the transfer to take place. That is, a certain amount of knowledge of L2 grammatical or linguistic skills is necessary in order to allow L1 reading knowledge to assist L2 reading (Bernhardt andKamil, 1995). Based on this hypothesis, it is assumed that without some L2 skills, the L2 readers’ limited language proficiency prevents their good L1 reading skills from being transferr ed to L2 reading (Lee, 2000). The second hypothesis is the Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis, also known as Common Underlying Proficiency (Lee, 2007 and Cummins, 1994),which states that the reading performance in L2 is largely influenced by L1 reading ability, so L1 reading ability transfers to L2 reading. Therefore language skills such as reading and writing in the L1 are interconnected and transferable to L2. This hypothesis proposes that L1 skills and L2 skills are not so different, but at some fundamental core they are interdependent or even the same (Bernhardt andKamil, 1995). Hence, once a set of language skills has been acquired, it can be adapted to enhance reading in the L2 context. Despite the conflict of the two hypotheses, it has been acknowledged that each hypothesis is accurate to some extent that both L1 reading ability and L2 language proficiency are important factors to increase L2 reading fluency, and that the product of reading refers to the level of understanding, which is considered to be achieved by one’s reading ability and various reading strategies that the reader uses. Another finding from August (2006) states that learning to read in a second language is an entirely different process from learning to read in the first language, and the methods used to teach adult second language learners should be somewhat different from those that are used to teach children. August also mentions that L2 readers can build reading proficiency by using previously developed L1 reading skills and knowledge to support newly developing L2 language skills. So, in effect, L2 readers need less academic training to advance their skills in L2 reading. In other word s, the adult L2 learner needs to acquire most of the requisite academic skills from L2 instruction itself rather than from the transfer of the skills. Although some degree of skill transfer occurs from L1 to L2 for all second language readers, the academic goals of an individual with a weak L2 background are more dependent upon the newly acquired L2 language skills. Therefore, the L2 leaner requires a curriculum which provides a highly intensive focus on L2 language and reading skills. Transfer of L1 skills has a very powerful influence on the acquisition of L2 skills, but many adult second language readers need a great deal more thantransferred skills to achieve their academic goals. A well-developed L1 reading skill can be automatically transferred to L2 reading, and L2 readers as well as L1 readers contribute to the reading process in a constructive manner. However, there are other aspects that can limit the L2 readers’ contribution in reading second language material or text, which are language misinterpretation, lack of both background knowledge, and limited resources (Berhardt andKamil, 1995; Block, 1992; Koda, 1989). Therefore, one cannot simply assume that L2 readers will be able to interpret text in the same manner as competent L1 readers do (Gass, 1987). 2.2.1. Process of Reading Reading processes such as bottom-up, top-down, and interactive, can be used before, during, and after reading (Goodman, 1976; Rumelhart, 1977; Smith, 1971). According to Carell andGrabe (2002), L2 readers use different reading processesthan L1 readers do because (1) they are limited in their linguistic knowledge; (2) they do not have enough cultural and social knowledge that is common in the English content; (3) they do not necessarily retrain prior knowledge, which is the basis of understanding English materials; (4) they study English for a variety of reasons, including making themselves familiar with English speaking countries, and (5) they use both their first and second language. That is why knowingL2 learners’L2 reading ability and the type of texts will help in choosing reading processes which can make the text better understood. 2.2.2.1. Bottom-up processing Bottom-up processing is a type of reading process where reading comprehension starts with the fundamental basics of letter and sound recognition, then later builds up to letters, letter clusters, words, phrases, sentences, and longer text, and finally meaning in the order to achieve comprehension. Beginner learners need a strong bottom-up component, which includes phonics instruction. In bottom up reading, students start with the basics of letter and sound recognition, move from morpheme recognition to word recognition, grammatical structures, and sentences in order to achieve basic comprehension. According to Iwai (2007), in bottom-up processing readers focus on letters, sounds, syllables, words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs. The process of constructing the meaning begins with written words. These learners view reading as beginning with the printed page, proceeding linearly from visual data to meaning by a series of processing stages. The most typical type that applies to bottom-up processing is intensive reading. Intensive reading involves a short reading passage followed by textbook activities to develop comprehension and/ or a particular reading skill. In an English lesson or in an English language course, this type of reading is often applied for sharpening students’ L2 knowledge and ability. 2.2.2.2. Top-down processing Top-down processing is a reading process where readers use background knowledge to predict meaning of the text. They search text to confirm or reject the predictions that they made. Within the top-down processing, the teacher should focus on meaning-based activities rather than on mastery of word recognition. By using this process, the reader builds comprehension skills by first applying general information already learned (larger elements) and moving down towards the specifics of the language (smaller elements). In top-down processing, readers make and evaluate experience and background knowledge. Coady (1979) wrote that the top-down processing model makes readers use their background knowledge schema and connects the schema with conceptual abilities and processing strategies to accomplish comprehension. University students have to do lots of research which requires lots of reading. This requires extensive reading and top-down reading processing. Extensive reading is also called pleasure reading, free voluntary reading, sustained silent reading, and supplementary reading (Bamford and Day, 2004; Nunan, 2003). In extensive reading, readers read as many books as they can outside of the classroom, to broaden their comprehension skills in order to get the main ideas or key points they need to imply top-down reading processing. The primary purpose of using extensive reading as a tool is to encourage students to enjoy reading in English, and thereby increase their motivation to improve their English skills by focusing on the understanding of broader and longer texts rather than the processing of a particular academic text. 2.2.1.3. Interactive Processing Reading is an interactive process that goes on between the reader and the text, resulting in comprehension. The text presents letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs that encode meaning. The reader uses knowledge, skills, and strategies to determine what that meaning is. This strategy is known as interactive processing; it is a combination of bottom-up and top-down processing which assumes that ‘a pattern is synthesized based on information provided simultaneously from several knowledge sources’ (Nunan, 2003), and it would include aspects of both intensiveand extensive reading. When put into practice, it is assumed that knowledge acquired from one strategy can compensate for the lack of knowledge from the other strategy. Fluent readers are considered to be those who can efficiently integrate both bottom-up and top-down strategies (Dubin, 1986; Grabe 1991; Murtagh, 1989). Aspects of interactive reading that help readers to interpret the author’s meaning are: 1) u sing their prior knowledge, 2) having a purpose for reading, 3) monitoring their understanding, and 4) working within the constraints of the situational context (Walker, 2001). The first aspect is that readers combine what they already know with the information from the text to figure out the author’s meaning (JohnandPrice, 2001). This textual information is comprised of pictures, letters in words, and headings, and the structure of sentences is used combined with prior knowledge (Kerringan, 1979). The second aspect is that readers tend to elaborate on what they read. They make connections using previous knowledge or experience to help them remember and interpret what they are reading. These new connections become part of thereaders’s knowledge base. The third aspect of interactive reading is that readers will continually monitor their understanding to see if it makes sense. These readers actively monitor their understanding through self-questions and various fix-up strategies to repair their comprehension. The fourth aspect is that readers use the situational context (elements given at a present time) to form ideas and adjust their purpose to each reading. 2.2.1.4. Interactive-compensatory model The interactive-compensatory model of reading was mainly developed to show how word recognition during reading can be affected by developmental and individual differences in the use of context (Stanovich, 1980). It is different from the bottom-up or top-down model in that in this model, readers process information simultaneously, not step by step. So, it seems that understanding of written and spoken language relies on a balanced combination of top-down and bottom-up processing. The readers have to pay attention to features in the text, orthographic knowledge, semantics, syntax, and lexical (vocabulary) knowledge when reading (Nutall, 2000). Thus, the perceptual-automatic recognition skill noted by Grabe (1992) seems psychologically real and theoretically possible, both in terms of Stanovich’s statement. Underwood (1982) asserted that when learners have achieved comprehension through practice, attention can be deviated. This interactive-compensatory theory states that all read ing skills develop independent of each other and in a different span of time. The purpose of the interactive-compensatory model is to provide a framework for understanding and improving L2 reading. The interactive-compensatory model includes 5 main components: cognitive abilities, knowledge, strategies, meta-cognition, and motivation. Knowledge and regulatory skills such as strategies and meta-cognition are combined into one category because of their close relationship among the components. There are three interrelated components within the model: cognitive ability, knowledge and regulation, and motivation (Underwood, 1982). Each of these components could be divided into further subcomponents. For example, the motivation component would include self-efficacy and attribution beliefs. It is assumed in the model that each of the components leads either directly or indirectly to learning.Since all components lead to learning, if a student is lacking in a particular skill (for example, knowledge) it could be compensated by greater strengths in other areas.